The Kremlin is expanding its global media conglomerate to shape the global narrative for years to come. The Kremlin has been cultivating a network of foreign media outlets, content creators, and journalists by forming partnerships, conducting outreach, and fostering media education across the globe. The Kremlin is building access and placement within foreign media alongside a global cadre of Russia-trained journalists to disseminate its narratives across regions and for decades. The media conglomerate is a key infrastructure pillar of Russia’s cognitive warfare effort. Russia uses cognitive warfare to shape Western decision-making, preserve Russian President Vladimir Putin’s regime, and mask Russia’s weaknesses.[1]
This paper expands on the assessment ISW published in 2020, as the Kremlin has evolved its efforts to expand its media conglomerate since the publication of that assessment. The expansion of the Russian media access is not inevitable as the Kremlin faces setbacks in its effort to preserve and form media partnerships. The United States and other countries can and should aim to disrupt the expansion of Russian cognitive warfare infrastructure.
Russian news agencies and broadcasters have been engaging in a deliberate effort to sign cooperation agreements with foreign media outlets. News agencies and major broadcasters act as wholesalers of news and audiovisual content to smaller, local outlets. Russian news agencies and broadcasters, including TASS, Rossiya Segodnya, Sputnik, Ruptly, and the Kremlin’s international TV network RT, have targeted every continent in their effort to secure media agreements, which allow them to share Russian state media content (See the Appendix).
Russian news agencies and broadcasters have been adding new language services to expand the reach of the Kremlin’s narratives. Sputnik announced in February 2026 plans to launch an Urdu-language service by the end of 2026 and opened its first African Editorial Center in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, in February 2025 – Russia’s first Amharic-language media service.[2] Ukraine’s Main Intelligence Directorate (HUR) reported that RT began Portuguese-language broadcasting in Mozambique and Angola in June 2025 and planned to launch broadcasting in Amharic.[3] TASS launched a Chinese-language news service in 2022.[4] Ruptly launched an Arabic-language platform in 2020 to target audiences in the Middle East and North Africa.[5] New language services allow the Russian news agencies to unlock more partnership opportunities and access new media markets. Multilingual services also help establish a perception of Russian news agencies as internationally credible sources of information.
The Kremlin has been cultivating a global cadre of Russia-friendly journalists to expand Russia’s influence. Sputnik’s SputnikPro journalism international education project has reportedly trained over 12,700 participants globally as of 2025, according to Rossiya Segodnya.[6] SputnikPro launched a new Moscow-based internship program for foreign radio journalists in 2025.[7] RT launched the RT Academy English-language international online education program in 2024, targeting aspiring journalists in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and African countries.[8] Kremlin media outlets have entered into numerous partnerships with foreign universities, particularly through initiatives such as RT Academy and SputnikPro. RT Academy delivered lectures and signed memorandums of understanding with Indian universities in 2025.[9] SputnikPro concluded partnerships with universities in Libya and Ghana in 2026, Bangladesh in 2025, and Indonesia in 2024, among others.[10] RT organized multi-day regional journalism training conventions in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, and Jakarta, Indonesia, in 2025.[11] Russia established the African Initiative news agency in 2023 to disseminate anti-Western narratives in African countries, and the agency opened a free journalism training school in Mali in 2024.[12]
The Kremlin’s investment in a global cadre of Russia-trained journalists is key to the resilience of Russian information influence, as it creates a community that can exist for decades and remains resilient against backlash against any given Russian media outlet or structure. ISW previously assessed that the Kremlin’s information operations span decades and geographies, and the Kremlin likely seeks to use such communities to maintain multi-generational narratives across regions.[13]
The Kremlin’s effort to build a global media conglomerate and a cadre of Russia-trained journalists pre-dates Russia’s full-scale invasion of Ukraine. Putin has prioritized growing the reach of Russian media throughout his rule as a means of governing Russia and expanding Russia’s influence abroad.[14] The Kremlin launched a distinct campaign around 2015 aimed at forming partnerships with local media outlets globally, moving beyond expanding the availability of Russian media networks.[15] Putin has been trying to restore and expand the Soviet media conglomerate, which had a presence in over 100 countries and broadcasted in over 70 languages during the Cold War.[16] The Kremlin notably revived TASS’s global outreach in 2012 and 2013, even though TASS had been a dying agency reliant on state subsidization since the fall of the Soviet Union.[17] TASS returned to being the most cited Russian source internationally by 2015 and started publishing online in Russian and English and opening new offices abroad by 2018.[18] TASS claims to have ‘partnership relationships’ with 200 media outlets from 114 countries as of 2026.[19]
The Kremlin’s effort to expand its global media conglomerate has continued and evolved since 2022.
Russia has prioritized the People’s Republic of China (PRC), Iran, and India in its media outreach since the full-scale invasion of Ukraine. Russian media signed at least 14 partnership agreements with Chinese counterparts, launched additional Chinese-language programming, and Chinese-language training courses for journalists since 2022.[20] Russia has emphasized the expansion of outreach to Indian audiences, with Russian media companies signing four media partnership agreements during Putin’s state visit to India on December 4 and 5, 2025.[21] Putin personally announced the launch of RT India during his state visit to India.[22] Russia has continued to deepen its media partnerships in Iran, including within the framework of the Russian-Iranian Comprehensive Strategic Partnership Treaty signed in January 2025.[23] Russia and Iran agreed to strengthen the ties between media and to encourage media companies to cooperate as part of the treaty.[24]
Russia is increasingly using the TV BRICS Media broadcaster to expand Russia’s access to media in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. TV BRICS is a Moscow-headquartered international media network created in 2017, which covers news within BRICS member and candidate nations.[25] TV BRICS is a platform for partnerships with media organizations; it distributes repackaged content from partnering countries. TV BRICS has secured at least 44 agreements since 2022.[26] Russia uses TV BRICS to expand its information influence in the non-Western world and exploit the BRICS framework in pursuit of its own objectives.
The Kremlin is trying to expand global media reach with help from Kremlin-affiliated milbloggers in an effort to adapt to emerging media platforms. The head of the Russian Telegram channel Rybar, Mikhail Zvinchuk, stated his intent to launch a Serbian-language journalism school and online training in Republika Srpska (the Serb-majority component government of Bosnia and Herzegovina [BiH]) in 2024.[27] Zvinchuk claimed in 2024 that Rybar has an organized “worldwide” network consisting of over 250 channels in 28 languages and confirmed that Rybar is opening “media schools” in Serbia, BiH, and Kyrgyzstan.[28] The status of these efforts is unclear. Rybar produces reports in at least four languages – Russian, English, Arabic, and French – which enables Zvinchuk to circulate Russian content internationally and develop partnerships with other regional platforms.[29] The Rybar Telegram channel claimed in 2025 that Zvinchuk and his team visited Iraq and met with Iraqi officials, including Iraqi Prime Minister Mohammad Shia Al Sudani.[30] Russian milbloggers, such as Rybar, emerged as the most prominent voices in the nationalist war reporting community in Russia during the invasion of Ukraine and gained significant attention online. The Kremlin may use them in its effort to infiltrate new segments of the global information space.
Russian media partnerships and training are key pillars of the Russian occupation and efforts to exert control over other states. The Russian occupation playbook presumes control of the information space of any occupied territory.[31] The Kremlin has absorbed the information space in the occupied territories in Ukraine.[32] Pro-Kremlin youth military-patriotic organization “Movement of the First” is establishing “MediaAttraction” media schools for children and teenagers in occupied Ukraine. Movement of the First has opened Media Attraction schools in Mariupol, Henichesk, Donetsk, Luhansk, and other occupied cities.[33] CNN reporting from May 2025 corroborates the existence of these schools and indicates they are preparing students to work as pro-Russian bloggers.[34]
The Kremlin is also trying to integrate the information space in Belarus into the Union State, a Russian-dominated framework that grants Moscow dominant power over most, if not all, aspects of Belarusian governance.[35] The Kremlin is openly stating its intent to create a ‘single Russo-Belarusian information space’ and is using the Union State media to aid that effort – a part of the Kremlin’s campaign to establish full control over Belarus.[36]
The Kremlin has faced many setbacks and failures in the effort to expand its media conglomerate, however, including in former Soviet countries and Europe. Russia was able to secure a partnership with only a handful of Western outlets and faced backlash against its efforts even pre-2022.[37] Many Western countries restricted the broadcasting of Russian media after the full-scale invasion of Ukraine. [38]The European Union imposed sanctions on RT and Sputnik across all member states in March 2022.[39]
Russia is increasingly facing setbacks and backlash among the former Soviet countries, where Russian media previously had free rein. Azerbaijan closed the office of Rossiya Segodnya in Azerbaijan in February 2025. Sputnik ceased operations in Azerbaijan in July 2025.[40] The Armenian parliament approved a bill giving the state Commission on Television and Radio more powers in February 2026 to block broadcasts of foreign television programs deemed to be meddling in Armenia’s internal politics.[41] Armenian Prime Minister Nikol Pashinyan’s government earlier criticized Russia for ramping up disinformation aimed at undermining his government ahead of the June 2026 election.[42] Kremlin Spokesperson Dmitry Peskov even admitted in March 2026 that Russia is “rapidly losing” its toolkit for “propaganda work abroad,” particularly in the near abroad.[43]
The Kremlin will likely intensify its efforts to expand the media conglomerate over the coming years, especially as the United States is reducing its global media outreach. The Kremlin and other US adversaries, such as the PRC, will likely try to compete for and fill the spaces in the information spaces in Africa, Asia, and Latin America, which the United States left vacant as it reduced the media footprint of the Voice of America and US Agency for Global Media (USAGM). Maintaining a global US media outreach effort is essential to deny US adversaries the ability to advance their objectives via cognitive warfare means.
Russia’s ability to sustain and expand its media conglomerate also depends on the availability of cash to invest in these efforts. The media conglomerate is an expensive undertaking as the Kremlin has to pay for media training, invest in building broadcasting infrastructure, pay journalists and translators, and work with advertisers. Russia, for example, had to significantly reduce its media conglomerate in the 1990s and early 2000s after the fall of the Soviet Union due to economic considerations.[44] The Kremlin is likely to continue prioritizing expansion of its global media access even amid resource constraints, as the Kremlin is heavily relying on cognitive warfare to advance its objectives.[45] The United States and the partners can nevertheless dampen the expansion of the Kremlin’s media conglomerate by illuminating its access and placement, by expanding economic pressure on Russia, and by investing in Ukrainian battlefield successes. Growing Russian losses on the battlefield and accumulating costs of the war will increase resource allocation dilemmas for the Kremlin.
Appendix: The Kremlin’s Media Cooperation Deals, Journalism Training, and Media Expansion
Note: This is a partial assessment. ISW will continue regularly enriching this dataset and the associated interactive map.
Europe
Armenia
- Media Partnership: Armenian state news agency Armenpress signed a cooperation agreement with Russian news agency TASS in 2013 and Ruptly video news agency in 2018. The Armenpress website currently lists TASS and Ruptly as its partners.[1]
Belarus
- Media Partnership: The Russian and Belarusian governments signed a decree creating a media holding company of the Union State in January 2024.[2] The Kremlin planned in January 2024 for the Union State media holding company to incorporate at least two weekly newspapers, a weekly magazine, and a TV channel.[3] The Kremlin announced in February 2026 that Russia and Belarus are finalizing the establishment of joint media companies as part of the January 2024 decree and claimed that the Union State’s new media outlets will become operational in 2026.[4]
- TV BRICS Partnership: Russian-registered media organization TV BRICS signed a cooperation agreement with Belarusian state news agency BelTA in October 2024.[5]
- TV BRICS Partnership: TV BRICS signed a cooperation agreement with Belarusian state television and radio broadcasting company Belteleradio in December 2025.[6]
Bosnia and Herzegovina
- Media expansion: Serbian-language branch of the Russian state-controlled internation TV network RT Balkan became available in Republika Srpska (the Serb-majority entity in Bosnia and Herzegovina) in December 2024.[7]
Bulgaria
- Media Partnership: Moscow-based newspaper Izvestia signed a cooperation agreement with Bulgarian news agency NOVINATA in February 2025.[8]
- Media Partnership: NOVINATA lists RT and RIA Novosti as partners as of March 2026.[9]
Moldova
- Media Partnership: The Russian Ministry of Communications signed a memorandum of cooperation with Mass Media Transnistrian State Service for Communications, Information, and Mass Media in 2014.[10] Russia has been illegally occupying the breakaway region of Transnistria in Moldova since 1992.
Serbia
- Media expansion: RT opened an RT Balkan branch based out of Belgrade, Serbia in December 2024.[11]
- TV BRICS Partnership: TV BRICS signed a cooperation agreement with Serbian media company Muzička televizija Srbije (MTS) in July 2024. MTS partners with Serbian state-owned radio and television broadcaster Radio televizija Srbije.[12]
Middle East
Region-wide
- Language Service Expansion: Ruptly launched an Arabic-language platform in April 2020 to target audiences in the Middle East and North Africa.[13]
- Language Service Expansion: TV BRICS launched an Arabic-language version of its online news portal in October 2024 and announced plans to establish a separate Arabic-language TV broadcasting branch.[14]
- Media Expansion: Ruptly launched a new subsidiary video platform in Arabic called Viory in November 2023.[15]
- Media Partnership: Sputnik signed a media cooperation agreement with the Saudi-based Union of Organization of Islamic Countries (OIC) News Agencies in November 2021.[16]
- Media Partnership: Russian news agency Interfax signed a cooperation memorandum with the Union of OIC News Agencies in May 2024.[17]
Bahrain
- Media Partnership: Rossiya Segodnya signed a cooperation agreement with Bahrain state media outlet Bahrain News Agency (BNA) and a memorandum of understanding with Bahraini newspaper Al Ayam in June 2025.[18]
Iran
- Media Partnership: Ruptly signed a media agreement with Iranian state media network Press TV in August 2025.[19]
- Media Partnership: Moscow-based multinational television broadcaster Mir signed a memorandum of understanding with Iranian state media corporation Islamic Republic of Iran Broadcasting (IRIB) in August 2025.[20]
- TV BRICS Partnership: TV BRICS signed an annex to the Mir-IRIB agreement in August 2025.[21]
- Media Partnership: Sputnik and Radio Tehran established collaboration in June 2025 to “facilitate content exchange and develop joint analytical programs.”[22]
- TV BRICS Partnership: TV BRICS signed a media partnership with Iranian state news agency Nour News in November 2025.[23]
- TV BRICS Partnership: TV BRICS signed a cooperation agreement with Iranian online news agency Tabnak in July 2025.[24]
- TV BRICS Partnership: TV BRICS signed a cooperation agreement on international media projects with the University of Tehran in December 2024.[25]
- TV BRICS Partnership: TV BRICS signed a cooperation agreement with Iranian state news agency Islamic Republic News Agency (IRNA) in February 2024.[26]
- TV BRICS Partnership: TV BRICS signed a cooperation agreement with Iranian state media company Mehr Media Group in February 2024.[27]
Iraq
- Media Partnership: Sputnik signed a cooperation agreement with United Kingdom-based Iraq International News Agency (IINA) in March 2024 focused on English-language content exchange and development of joint educational projects.[28]
Lebanon
- Media Partnership: TASS signed a memorandum of understanding with Lebanese state news agency National News Agency (NNA) in September 2024 focused on content sharing and journalist exchanges.[29]
Libya
- University Outreach: Sputnik launched the “Sputnik Pro” project in Libya in February 2026, training students and faculty members from Tripoli University.[30]
Saudi Arabia
- Media Partnership: Sputnik signed a cooperation agreement with the Saudi state news agency Saudi Arabian Press Agency (SPA) in October 2023 for information exchange and organization of joint media events.[31]
- Media Partnership: Sputnik signed a media cooperation agreement with the Saudi-based Union of Organization of Islamic Countries (OIC) News Agencies in November 2021.[32]
- Media Partnership: Russian news agency Interfax signed a cooperation memorandum with the Union of OIC News Agencies in May 2024.[33]
UAE
- Media Outreach: Representatives of Russian media institutions, including TASS, Rossiya Segodnya, and RT, met with a delegation from United Arab Emirates national media outlet Emirates News Agency (WAM) during the “Developing Media Cooperation with the Islamic World – Russia’s Most Important Doctrine” conference in Moscow in December 2022 and discussed cooperation in content sharing and media training programs.[34]
- TV BRICS Partnership: TV BRICS signed a cooperation agreement with the UAE state news agency Emirates News Agency (WAM) in April 2024.[35]
Asia
Region-wide
- Journalism Training: RT launched RT Academy, a free international education program for aspiring journalists, in April 2024. RT made the program first available to journalists from Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) countries and expanded courses to China in 2024 and Africa and India in 2025.[36]
Bangladesh
- Media Partnership: Sputnik reported that it signed a cooperation agreement with Bangladeshi newspaper The Daily Messenger in August 2024.[37]
- Journalism Education: The Russian Embassy in Dhaka held a SputnikPro media training workshop for Bangladeshi journalists in August 2024.[38]
- Media Partnership: Sputnik signed a memorandum of understanding with Bangladeshi online newspaper Deshkal News in November 2025.[39]
- University Outreach: Sputnik signed a memorandum of understanding with Daffodil International University in December 2025.[40]
China
- Language Service Expansion: TASS launched a Chinese-language news service in February 2022.[41]
- Media Partnership: Gazprom Media signed a cooperation agreement with Chinese state media broadcaster China Media Group in May 2024.[42]
- Media Partnerships: Russian and Chinese media and broadcasting companies signed five media agreements during Chinese President Xi Jinping’s visit to Russia in May 2025.[43] Gazprom Media Holding signed a memorandum of cooperation with Chinese state news agency Xinhua.[44] RT signed a memorandum of cooperation with China Media Group and a memorandum of cooperation with Xinhua.[45] RT and Xinhua signed a memorandum on jointly holding the Shanghai Cooperation Organization’s (SCO) Expert Forum, which brings together SCO think tanks.[46] Russian private media holding National Media Group (NMG) signed a cooperation agreement with China Media Group.[47] Russian state-owned broadcaster All-Russia State Television and Radio Broadcasting Company (VGTRK) signed a memorandum on deepening cooperation with China Media Group.[48]
- Media Partnerships: Russian and Chinese media companies signed seven media agreements during Russian President Vladimir Putin’s visit to China in September 2025.[49] TASS and Xinhua signed the Strategy for the Development of Cooperation for 2026-2030. TASS and Xinhua previously signed a renewed cooperation agreement in March 2023.[50] ISW previously reported that Sputnik and Xinhua signed an agreement on exchanging content in October 2019.[51] The Editorial office of the Russian state-run newspaper Rossiyskaya Gazeta signed cooperation agreements with the official newspaper of the Central Committee, Renmin Ribao (People’s Daily), China Media Group, and Xinhua. TASS signed a strategic cooperation agreement for 2026-2030 with Xinhua.[52] NMG signed a cooperation agreement with Xinhua.[53] RT signed a cooperation memorandum with Shanghai-based state broadcaster Shanghai Radio and Television Station. Bolshaya Azia (Big Asia) TV channel signed a cooperation memorandum with China Media Group.
- Journalism Training: RT launched a new online Chinese-language training course for journalists in October 2024.[54]
- Journalism Training: Lomonosov Moscow State University signed a memorandum of understanding with Renmin Ribao (People’s Daily) and a memorandum of cooperation with China Media Group in May 2025.[55]
- TV BRICS Partnership: TV BRICS signed a cooperation agreement with Chinese media network Dongbeiwang in February 2023.
- Media Partnership: Dongbeiwang signed a memorandum of cooperation with Sputnik in August 2019.[56]
- TV BRICS Partnership: TV BRICS signed a cooperation agreement with online newspaper Guancha Media Company in March 2025.[57]
- TV BRICS Partnership: TV BRICS lists multimedia platform China.com, state radio company China Radio International, press center of the Jilin Provincial People’s Government Jilin Province Intermedia Media, China Global Television Network (CGTN), People’s Daily, and state newspaper China Daily as partners as of March 2026.[58]
- TV BRICS Partnership: TV BRICS signed a cooperation agreement with the Global Times newspaper in January 2025.[59]
India
- Media Partnership: Russian and Indian media companies signed four media partnership agreements during Putin’s state visit to India on December 4 and 5, 2025.[60] Gazprom Media, NMG, RT, and Bolshaya Aziya individually signed cooperation and collaboration memorandums with India’s state-owned Prasar Bharati public broadcaster. TASS signed a signed a cooperation agreement with Press Trust of India (PTI) news agency.[61] Sputnik partnered with Indian news channel Republic Media Network to cover Putin’s visit to India.[62]
- Media Expansion: Putin announced the formation of RT India on December 5, 2025 during his state visit to India.[63]
- TV BRICS Partnership: TV BRICS signed a cooperation agreement with Indian television network TV9 in June 2024.[64]
- TV BRICS Partnership: TV BRICS signed a memorandum of understanding with Prasar Bharati during Putin’s state visit to India on December 4 and 5, 2025.[65]
- TV BRICS Partnership: TV BRICS lists Indian newspaper Janhit Times, news agencies Indo-Asian News Service and Asian News International, TV broadcaster Malai Murasu TV, and newspaper Trinity Mirror as partners as of March 2026.[66]
Indonesia
- University Outreach: Sputnik signed a cooperation agreement with YAI Persada Indonesia University in October 2024 to expand the SputnikPro media training project.[67]
- TV BRICS Partnership: TV BRICS signed a partnership agreement with Indonesian public broadcaster Televisi Republik Indonesia (TVRI) in October 2025.[68]
- Kazakhstan
- TV BRICS Partnership: TV BRICS lists Kazakh national news agency Kazinform as a partner as of March 2026.[69]
Kyrgyzstan
- TV BRICS Partnership: TV BRICS signed a cooperation agreement with the National Television and Radio Broadcasting Corporation of Kyrgyzstan (NTRK) in December 2025.[70]
- TV BRICS Partnership: TV BRICS signed a cooperation agreement with Kyrgyz financial analytical portal Akchabar in November 2025.[71]
Malaysia
- University Outreach: International Islamic University of Malaysia joined the SputnikPro media training project in May 2024 and participated in a training session for journalism students.[72]
- Media Partnership: Rossiya Segodnya signed a memorandum of understanding with Malaysian state news agency Bernama in June 2025.[73]
- TV BRICS Partnership: TV BRICS signed a memorandum of understanding with Bernama in June 2025.[74]
Mongolia
- Media Partnership: Sputnik signed a cooperation agreement on content sharing and joint projects with Mongolia’s state news agency Montsame in September 2017.[75] Montsame lists Sputnik as a partner as of March 2026.[76]
Myanmar
- Media Partnership: Rossiya Segodnya reported that Sputnik signed a memorandum of understanding with Myanmar Armed Forces-owned television network Myawaddy TV in September 2022 to exchange content and hold joint events.[77]
- Media Partnership: Sputnik signed a cooperation agreement with Myanmar state newspaper Global New Light of Myanmar (GNLM) in September 2023.[78]
North Korea
- Media Partnership: Rossiya Segodnya signed a media cooperation agreement with North Korean state news agency Korean Central News Agency (KCNA) in November 2025 focused on information exchange and joint media projects.[79]
- Media Partnership: TASS signed a cooperation agreement with KCNA in March 2026, focusing on information exchanges and countering “disinformation.”[80]
- Media Expansion: North Korea switched its state television broadcast satellite from Chinese ChinaSat 12 to Russian Express-103 in July 2024.[81]
- Kremlin Outreach: The Russian Ministry of Digital Development, Communications and Mass Media and the North Korean Ministry of Information Technology signed a cooperation agreement on communication technologies and digital development in October 2024.[82]
Pakistan
- Media Partnership: Sputnik reported that it signed a media cooperation agreement with Pakistani state media outlet Associated Press of Pakistan (APP) in November 2025. The agreement involves content exchange in English, Arabic, and Chinese, and the organization of joint seminars, workshops, press conferences, and media events.[83]
- Media Partnership: Rossiya Segodnya signed a memorandum of understanding with the online newspaper Pakistan Observer in November 2025 to combat “misinformation and misleading narratives.”[84]
- University Outreach: Sputnik signed a cooperation agreement with Daffodil International University in December 2025.[85]
- Language Service Expansion: Sputnik announced in February 2026 plans to launch an Urdu-language service by the end of 2026.[86]
Philippines
- Media Partnership: Sputnik signed a cooperation and content sharing agreement with Philippine News Agency (PNA) in March 2023.[87]
- Kremlin Outreach: Kremlin-controlled investment agency Skolkovo Foundation signed a memorandum of understanding with Philippine state enterprise National Development Company in September 2025 to develop the Philippines’ internet and communications technology (ICT) sector.[88]
Thailand
- University Outreach: Rossiya Segodnya reported that Thammasat University in Bangkok participated in an online SputnikPro media training workshop in September 2024.[89]
- TV BRICS Partnership: TV BRICS signed a media partnership with Thai Public Broadcasting Service (Thai PBS) in September 2025.[90]
Uzbekistan
- Media Partnership: VGTRK signed a cooperation agreement with the National Television and Radio Company of Uzbekistan (MTRK) in May 2019.[91]
Vietnam
- Media Partnership: Orpheus Radio signed a memorandum of understanding with Vietnamese national radio broadcaster Voice of Vietnam (VOV) in May 2025.[92]
- Media Partnership: TASS and Vietnam’s state newspaper Nhan Dan agreed to expand cooperation in February 2026.[93] TASS also updated its cooperation agreement with Vietnamese state news agency Vietnam News Agency (VNA) in February 2026 to expand their ties in the digital age.[94]
- Media Partnership: Sputnik signed a cooperation agreement on content sharing and joint projects with VNA in June 2017.[95]
- TV BRICS Partnership: TV BRICS signed a cooperation agreement with VNA in June 2024.[96]
Africa
Region-wide
- Media Outreach: Sputnik organized a roundtable on media cooperation with a variety of Africa-based media organizations, including Sputnik Africa, RT Africa, Congolese National Radio-Television (RTNC), and Mauritanian and Comorian public media in June 2023.[97] Sputnik also organized a roundtable on media cooperation Africa-based media organizations such as the Tunis Afrique Press news agency, Cameroon’s Radio Bonne Nouvelle, and the Malian Broadcasting and Television Office in July 2023.[98]
- Media and Language Service Expansion: Ukraine’s Main Intelligence Directorate (HUR) reported in July 2025 that Russian state media broadcasts in more than 40 African countries and that Russia began Portuguese-language broadcasting in Africa in June 2025. The HUR reported that TASS is working to expand its offices throughout Africa, including in Ethiopia, Senegal, Algeria, and the Democratic Republic of Congo. The HUR reported that RT’s presence in Africa grew from 30 to 60 TV channel partners between 2023 and 2025.[99] Deputy Director of the Department of Partnership with Africa of the Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs Andrey Panyukhov stated in May 2025 that Russian media outlets are broadcasting in more than 40 African countries in six languages.[100]
- TV BRICS Partnership: TV BRICS signed a cooperation agreement with African Times, a pan-African media organization, in August 2023.[101]
Algeria
- Media Partnership: TASS signed a cooperation memorandum with Algerian state news agency Algeria Press Service (APS) on the sidelines of the second Russia-Africa media forum in July 2023.[102]
- Media Partnership: Sputnik signed a media cooperation agreement with APS in November 2023. Sputnik previously signed a media cooperation agreement with APS in April 2016.[103]
Botswana
- Media Partnership: Sputnik reported that Rossiya Segodnya signed a cooperation agreement with Botswanan newspaper The Midweek Sun in November 2025.[104]
Cameroon
- Media Partnership: RT established a partnership with Afrique Media TV in December 2022 on the exchange of content aimed at countering alleged Western propaganda.[105]
Congo
- Media Partnership: Rossiya Segodnya reported that Sputnik signed an updated cooperation agreement focused on content exchange and journalistic training with Congolese state news agency Agence Congolaise d’Information (ACI) in July 2022.[106]
- Media Partnership: TASS signed a cooperation memorandum with ACI on the sidelines of the second Russia-Africa media forum in July 2023.[107]
- Media Partnership: TASS signed a cooperation memorandum with Agence d’Information d’Afrique Centrale (ADIAC) on the sidelines of the second Russia-Africa media forum in July 2023.[108]
- Media Partnership: Sputnik reported that it signed a French-language content exchange agreement with Congolese news website La Nouvelle République in April 2024.[109]
Egypt
- TV BRICS Partnership: TV BRICS signed a cooperation agreement with Egyptian news website Sada El Balad in January 2025.[110]
- TV BRICS Partnership: TV BRICS signed a cooperation agreement with Egyptian state news agency Middle East News Agency (MENA) in October 2024.[111]
- TV BRICS Partnership: TV BRICS signed a cooperation agreement with English-language Egyptian newspaper Daily News Egypt in October 2023.[112]
Ethiopia
- Media and Language Service Expansion: Sputnik opened its first African Editorial Center in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, in February 2025. This is Russia’s first Amharic-language media service.[113]
Ghana
- University Outreach: Sputnik signed a memorandum of understanding with the University of Media, Arts, and Communications in Ghana in February 2026.[114]
Gambia
- Media Partnership: Sputnik signed a cooperation agreement during the Economic and Humanitarian Forum Russia-Africa with Gambian state media outlet Gambia News Agency in August 2023.[115]
Kenya
- Media Expansion: RT launched a new TV show based in Kenya called “Lumumba’s Africa” in August 2024.[116]
- TV BRICS Partnership: TV BRICS signed a cooperation agreement with Kenyan media holding Mediamax Network in November 2023.[117]
- Media Partnership: Sputnik signed a cooperation agreement during the Economic and Humanitarian Forum Russia-Africa with Kenyan media group Radio Africa Group in August 2023.[118]
Mali
- Journalism Training: Rossiya Segodnya reported that Sputnik hosted a two-day program for journalists from Mali in May 2025. Journalists from Office de Radiodiffusion-Télévision du Mali and news portal MaliJet participated in the program.[119]
- Journalism Training: The Kremlin-controlled “African Initiative” information agency trained 60 students as journalists in Mali in 2024.[120]
Mauritania
- Media Partnership: Sputnik signed a cooperation agreement during the Economic and Humanitarian Forum Russia-Africa with Mauritanian state media outlet Mauritanian News Agency (AMI) in August 2023.[121]
Mozambique
- TV BRICS Partnership: TV BRICS signed a cooperation agreement with Mozambique public broadcaster Televisão de Moçambique (TVM) in April 2023.[122]
Namibia
- Media Partnership: TASS signed a cooperation memorandum with Namibian state news agency Namibia Press Agency (NAMPA) on the sidelines of the second Russia-Africa media forum in July 2023.[123]
Nigeria
- TV BRICS Partnership: TV BRICS signed a cooperation agreement with regional southeastern Nigerian television channel Afia TV on content exchange and joint content production in December 2024.[124]
- TV BRICS Partnership: TV BRICS signed a cooperation agreement with Nigerian state news agency News Agency of Nigeria (NAN) in March 2025.[125]
Senegal
- Media Partnership: TASS signed a cooperation memorandum with Senegalese state news agency Agence de Presse Sénégalaise (APS) on the sidelines of the second Russia-Africa media forum in July 2023.[126]
- Media Partnership: Sputnik signed a cooperation agreement during the Economic and Humanitarian Forum Russia-Africa with APS in August 2023.[127]
South Africa
- TV BRICS Partnership: TV BRICS established a media cooperation partnership with South African television channel Umthala TV in October 2023.[128]
- TV BRICS Partnership: TV BRICS signed a cooperation agreement with South African-based African Times, a pan-African media organization, in August 2023.[129]
- TV BRICS Partnership: TV BRICS lists African News Agency (ANA), newspaper Pretoria News, streamcasting TV channel Durban TV, media platform The Diplomatic Society, and TV station Soweto TV as partners as of March 2026.[130]
Tunisia
- TV BRICS Partnership: TV BRICS established a media cooperation partnership with Tunis Afrique Presse (TAP) in January 2024.[131]
Uganda
- Media Partnership: Sputnik signed a cooperation agreement during the Economic and Humanitarian Forum Russia-Africa with Ugandan media conglomerate New Vision Group in August 2023.[132]
Zimbabwe
- Media Partnership: TASS signed a cooperation memorandum with Zimbabwe’s New Ziana news agency (also known as Zimbabwe’s Inter-Africa News Agency) on the sidelines of the second Russia-Africa media forum in July 2023.[133]
- TV BRICS Partnership: TV BRICS established an agreement with Zimbabwe Broadcasting Corporation (ZBC) in April 2024.[134]
- TV BRICS Partnership: TV BRICS lists Zimbabwean state-owned newspaper The Herald as a partner as of March 2026.[135]
Americas
Region-wide
- Language Service Expansion: TV BRICS launched a Spanish-language news portal and online broadcast in March 2024, specifically focusing on providing programming for Spanish-speaking countries in Latin America and the Caribbean.[136]
Argentina
- Media Partnership: Sputnik signed a cooperation agreement with Argentine online newspaper Ahora San Juan in December 2022 focused on establishing Spanish-language information exchange.[137]
- TV BRICS Partnership: TV BRICS partnered with Ahora San Juan in June 2023 to create a Spanish-language BRICS news section in Ahora San Juan.[138]
- TV BRICS Partnership: TV BRICS lists online outlet BRICSLat, Argentine digital media outlet AsiaTV, and news channel Extra! as partners as of March 2026.[139]
Bolivia
- TV BRICS Partnership: TV BRICS signed a cooperation agreement with Bolivian state television station Bolivia TV in September 2025.[140]
Brazil
- TV BRICS Partnership: TV BRICS signed a memorandum of cooperation with Brazilian financial news and analysis agency CMA Group in November 2023.[141]
- TV BRICS Partnership: TV BRICS lists Brazilian newspaper Toda Palavra, news agency Metropoles, news website Brasil 247, TV station Univesp TV, TV channels Com Brasil and TVC RIO, media holding Grupo Bandeirantes de Comunicação, multimedia outlet Brasil de Fato (BdF), and television network TV Cultura as partners as of March 2026.[142]
Chile
- TV BRICS Partnership: TV BRICS signed a cooperation agreement with Chilean news website Cronica Digital in March 2024.[143]
- TV BRICS Partnership: TV BRICS signed a cooperation agreement with Chilean news outlet El Ciudadano in March 2024.[144]
- TV BRICS Partnership: TV BRICS signed a cooperation agreement with online news portal El Maipo in August 2025.[145]
Colombia
- TV BRICS Partnership: TV BRICS signed a cooperation agreement with regional southwestern Colombian television channel Canal ZONA D in September 2024.[146]
Cuba
- TV BRICS Partnership: TV BRICS signed a cooperation memorandum with Cuban state news agency Prensa Latina in December 2022.[147]
- Media Presence: RT, Sputnik, and RIA Novosti have been the main providers of news content on Russia’s war in Ukraine for the Cuban outlets, including Prensa Latina, Granma, Trabajadores, Cubadebate in Cuba, according to a February 2023 report by the U.S. Agency for Global Media.[148]
- Media Partnership: Radio Sputnik signed a cooperation agreement on joint radio broadcasting with Cuba’s state news agency Prensa Latina in March 2017.[149]
- Media Partnership: Sputnik signed a cooperation memorandum with the Cuban state information agency Institute of Information and Social Communication (ICS) in August 2025. The agreement includes implementing joint information projects and launching regular Spanish-language Sputnik broadcasts on Cuban radio.[150]
Mexico
- Media Partnership: Sputnik signed a memorandum of understanding with Mexican online newspaper El Soberano in December 2022 to establish free content exchange.[151]
- TV BRICS Partnership: TV BRICS signed a cooperation agreement with Mexican television network Canal 6 TV in February 2025.[152]
Nicaragua
- Media Partnership: Sputnik signed a cooperation agreement with Nicaraguan state media conglomerate Communication and Citizenry Council of Nicaragua in September 2022.[153]
Uruguay
- TV BRICS Partnership: TV BRICS signed a media partnership agreement with Uruguayan online newspaper Diario la R in August 2025.[154]
Venezuela
- Media Partnership: Sputnik signed a cooperation agreement for projects in communications sector with the Venezuelan government in November 2024.[155]
- TV BRICS Partnership: TV BRICS signed a cooperation agreement with Telesur in April 2023. Telesur is a Caracas-based television network sponsored by Venezuela, Cuba, and Nicaragua.[156]
The media is one element of Russia’s global cognitive warfare infrastructure. The Kremlin’s informational means of cognitive warfare are much broader than media manipulation. Russia uses all platforms that can transmit narratives as tools of its cognitive warfare.[46] The Kremlin circulates its narratives through its entire network of alliances, international organizations, media, and individuals. Yet, media infrastructure remains a core pillar. It is important to deny Russia the ability to expand its media conglomerate.
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[130] https://tvbrics dotcom/en/partners/
[131] https://tvbrics dot com/en/news/tv-brics-and-tunis-afrique-presse-intensify-the-promotion-of-the-arab-african-agenda-in-the-global-m/
[132] https://en dot sputniknews.africa/20230801/sputnik-expands-network-of-partners-in-africa-1060978151.html
[133] https://tass dot com/world/1653075
[134] https://tvbrics dot com/en/news/russian-classics-to-be-played-on-zimbabwe-s-national-radio-for-first-time/
[135] https://tvbrics dot com/en/partners/
[136] https://tvbrics dot com/en/news/tv-brics-launches-spanish-version-of-website/
[137] https://россиясегодня dot рф/20221215/366327.html ; https://www.ahorasanjuan dot com/ahora-san-juan-firma-importante-convenio-de-cooperacion-en-moscu-con-la-agencia-sputnik/
[138] https://tvbrics dot com/en/news/tv-brics-and-ahora-san-juan-launch-a-special-brics-news-section-in-spanish/
[139] https://tvbrics dot com/en/partners/
[140] https://tvbrics dot com/en/news/bolivia-s-leading-state-television-channel-begins-cooperation-with-foreign-media-through-tv-brics/
[141] https://tvbrics dot com/en/news/tv-brics-and-cma-group-intensify-coverage-of-agricultural-co-operation-between-brics-countries/
[142] https://tvbrics dot com/en/partners/
[143] https://tvbrics dot com/en/news/tv-brics-expands-audience-geography-through-partnership-with-chile-s-cr-nica-digital/ ; https://cronicadigital dot cl/cronica-digital-y-tv-brics-firman-acuerdo-de-cooperacion-para-expandir-la-geografia-de-su-audiencia/
[144] https://tvbrics dot com/en/news/chilean-portal-el-ciudadano-joins-tv-brics-international-media-network/
[145] https://tvbrics dot com/en/news/brics-countries-to-receive-more-unique-news-about-latin-america/
[146] https://tvbrics dot com/en/news/tv-brics-starts-co-operation-with-colombia-/?sphrase_id=40491
[147] https://www.plenglish dot com/news/2022/12/16/prensa-latina-signs-collaboration-memorandum-with-tv-brics/ ; https://tvbrics dot com/en/news/tv-brics-and-prensa-latina-sign-cooperation-agreement/
[148] https://www.usagm.gov/2023/02/24/new-partnership-provides-fact-checking-support-to-combat-on-russian-disinformation-in-cuba.
[149] https://understandingwar.org/research/russia-ukraine/the-kremlins-expanding-media/ ; https://www.radiotelevisionmarti dot com/a/cuba-sputnik-prensa-latina-acuerdo-colaboracion/141466.html
[150] https://ria dot ru/20250805/sputnik-2033470402.html ; https://www.ics dot gob.cu/firman-sputnik-y-la-radio-cubana-memorando-de-colaboracion/
[151] https://россиясегодня dot рф/20221215/366327.html ; https://elsoberano dot mx/2023/02/24/firman-el-soberano-y-sputnik-memorandum-de-entendimiento/
[152] https://tvbrics dot com/en/video/tv-brics-begins-cooperation-with-mexico/ ; https://www.facebook dot com/canalseistv/videos/canal-6-valle-de-m%C3%A9xico-es-el-primer-medio-mexicano-en-firmar-alianza-con-tv-bri/24227417240225691/?locale=es_LA
[153] https://www.voanews dot com/a/nicaragua-cuts-deal-with-kremlin-station-sputnik-to-air-content-/6747611.html; https://rsf dot org/en/nicaragua-latin-american-hotspot-russian-propaganda
[154] https://tvbrics dot com/en/news/uruguay-s-agenda-to-appear-in-brics-information-space/ ; https://grupormultimedio dot com/tv-brics-y-diario-la-r-firmaron-acuerdo-de-cooperacion-id169737/
[155] https://ria dot ru/20241126/venesuela-1985883782.html
[156] https://orinocotribune dot com/tv-brics-and-telesur-sign-strategic-cooperation-agreement/ ; https://tvbrics dot com/en/news/tv-brics-signs-agreement-with-one-of-latin-america-s-most-influential-media-sources/
[1] https://understandingwar.org/research/cognitive-warfare/a-primer-on-russian-cognitive-warfare/
[2] https://sputnikglobe dot com/20260227/sputnik-urdu-to-launch-in-2026-1123703464.html ; https://sputniknews dot in/20250219/sputnik-opens-hub-in-ethiopia-8793141.html ; https://www.facebook.com/GazettePlusEnglish/videos/sputnik-officially-opens-an-editorial-center-in-ethiopia-it-is-the-first-russian/979545936960799/
[3] https://t.me/DIUkraine/6419; https://kyivindependent dot com/russia-scales-up-propaganda-across-africa-ukrainian-intelligence-says/?utm_source=chatgpt.com
[4] https://tass dot com/society/1395153 ; https://english dot news.cn/20220201/739fc81dccd542bdb431e11a6c8a82c6/c.html.
[5] https://www.broadcastprome dot com/news/ruptly-boosts-mena-services-with-new-arabic-language-platform-and-content/ ; https://www dot campaignme dot com/ruptly-boosts-mena-services-arabic-language-platform-content/
[6] https://sputnikglobe dot com/20240530/university-in-malaysia-joins-sputnikpro-project-1118698556.html ; https://rossiyasegodnya dot com/20250526/685473.html
[7] https://sputnikglobe dot com/20250624/sputnik-launches-internship-for-foreign-radio-journalists-1122332666.html
[8] https://www.rt dot com/about-us/press-releases/rt-academy-launch-project/; https://school dot rt.com/international/
[9] https://academy dot rt.com/rt-academy-in-india-lectures-master-classes-and-documentary-screenings.html?utm_source=chatgpt.com
[10] https://libyaupdate dot com/libya-joins-the-sputnik-pro-project-and-launches-the-first-training-course-at-tripoli-university/ ; https://en dot sputniknews.africa/20260212/sputnik-launches-cooperation-with-ghana-1083363586.html ; https://unimac dot edu.gh/2026/02/17/sputnik-launches-cooperation-with-unimac-ghana/; https://rossiyasegodnya dot com/20251212/760104.html ; https://www.facebook.com/diu.international/posts/sputnik-daffodil-international-university-sign-cooperation-agreement/1187647496798178/; https://www dot rossiyasegodnya dot com/20241009/642974.html ; https://yai dot ac.id/article/press-release-sputnik-upi-yai
[11] https://www.yahoo.com/news/articles/teaching-journalism-russian-way-rt-205847467.html ; https://www.bignewsnetwork dot com/news/278261407/rt-academy-hosts-its-first-journalism-training-course-in-africa
[12] https://afrinz dot ru/en/2024/07/the-african-initiative-and-the-russian-malaysian-association-opened-a-journalism-school/; https://www.sgdsn dot gouv.fr/files/files/Publications/20250612_TLP-CLEAR_VIGINUM_FCDO_EEAS_Technical_Report_African_Initiative_EN.pdf
[13] https://understandingwar.org/research/cognitive-warfare/a-primer-on-russian-cognitive-warfare/
[14] https://understandingwar.org/research/russia-ukraine/putins-offset-the-kremlins-geopolitical-adaptations-since-2014/
[15] https://understandingwar.org/research/russia-ukraine/the-kremlins-expanding-media/
[16] https://www.academia.edu/44468094/How_Do_You_Listen_to_Radio_Moscow_Moscow_s_Broadcasters_Third_World_Listeners_and_the_Space_of_the_Airwaves_in_the_Cold_War; https://digitalcommons.bucknell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1050&context=chr; https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp87t00787r000200170003-4; https://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/cold-war-broadcasting
[17] https://scholarspace.library.gwu.edu/downloads/jd472x35s?disposition=inline&locale=en
[18] https://scholarspace.library.gwu.edu/downloads/jd472x35s?disposition=inline&locale=en
[19] https://tass dot ru/tass-today
[20] https://tass dot com/society/1395153 ; https://english dot news.cn/20220201/739fc81dccd542bdb431e11a6c8a82c6/c.html; https://tass dot com/society/1591751; https://www dot iz dot ru/1883303/2025-05-08/nmg-and-media-corporation-china-cmg-have-signed-cooperation-agreement ; https://nmg dot ru/news/natsionalnaya-media-gruppa-i-mediakorporatsiya-kitaya-cmg-obyavlyayut-o-nachale-sotrudnichestva/; https://www dot rt dot com/about-us/press-releases/rt-academy-chinese-media-course/ ; https://academy dot rt dot com/; https://www dot iz dot ru/1883303/2025-05-08/nmg-and-media-corporation-china-cmg-have-signed-cooperation-agreement ; https://nmg dot ru/news/natsionalnaya-media-gruppa-i-mediakorporatsiya-kitaya-cmg-obyavlyayut-o-nachale-sotrudnichestva/; https://news dot am/rus/news/881742.html; https://www dot rt dot com/about-us/press-releases/rt-academy-chinese-media-course/ ; https://academy dot rt dot com/
[21] http://en.kremlin dot ru/supplement/6425; https://tass dot com/society/2054009; https://sputniknews dot in/20251203/republic-sputnik-team-up-for-putins-india-visit-joint-broadcast-10154837.html ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X_ddlR6QbKI (Republic Media Network livestream of the broadcast on Youtube referencing the Sputnik partnership)
[22] http://en dot kremlin.ru/events/president/news/78659
[23]Iranian officials led a media delegation to Moscow in May 2025 to deepen media cooperation between Russia and Iran as part of a bilateral committee on media cooperation established in 2018 https://www.presstv dot co dot uk/Detail/2025/05/18/748164/iranian-media-delegation-visits-russia-strengthen-media-cooperation ; https://fmso.tradoc.army.mil/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/IRAN-RUSSIA-MDIME-FINAL-6-DEC-23-2.pdf (page 8)
[24] http://www.kremlin dot ru/supplement/6258
[25] https://www.gmfus.org/news/what-tv-brics-sanctions-linked-russia-backed-influence-broker#:~:text=TV%20BRICS%2C%20a%20Russian%2Dregistered,for%20release%20to%20other%20partners.
[26] https://www.gmfus.org/news/what-tv-brics-sanctions-linked-russia-backed-influence-broker#:~:text=TV%20BRICS%2C%20a%20Russian%2Dregistered,for%20release%20to%20other%20partners.; https://english dot news.cn/20241023/0c97d0297c08473285e9cff022d6ef78/c.html; https://tvbrics dot com/en/news/tv-brics-begins-co-operation-with-vietnam/?sphrase_id=22584; https://tvbrics dot com/en/news/co-operation-between-tv-brics-and-iran-s-oldest-news-agency-to-help-integrate-the-agenda-of-the-isla/?sphrase_id=22584
[27] https://detektor dot ba/2024/11/05/ruski-ribar-i-vlasti-republike-srpske-pokrecu-medijsku-skolu-propagande/?lang=en ; https://balkaninsight dot com/2024/11/07/eu-warns-bosnian-serbs-over-russian-military-bloggers-planned-media-school/
[28] https://understandingwar.org/research/russia-ukraine/russian-offensive-campaign-assessment_4/
[29] https://thebell dot io/kto-vedet-voennyy-telegram-kanal-rybar-rassledovanie-the-bell
[30] https://understandingwar.org/research/russia-ukraine/russian-offensive-campaign-assessment-january-25-2025/; https://t.me/rybar/67450
[31] https://understandingwar.org/research/russia-ukraine/the-kremlins-occupation-playbook-coerced-russification-and-ethnic-cleansing-in-occupied-ukraine-2/
[32] https://understandingwar.org/research/russia-ukraine/russian-occupation-update-december-11-2025/ ; https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-61154066 ; https://understandingwar.org/research/russia-ukraine/russian-occupation-update-may-12-2025/ ; https://understandingwar.org/research/russia-ukraine/russian-occupation-update-april-8-2025/
[33] https://www.themoscowtimes dot com/2025/05/29/in-occupied-ukraine-the-kremlin-is-grooming-the-next-generation-of-pro-russian-bloggers-a89209 ; https://edition.cnn.com/2025/05/13/europe/mariupol-russian-occupation-social-media-influencers-intl-invs
[34] https://www.cnn.com/2025/05/13/europe/mariupol-russian-occupation-social-media-influencers-intl-invs
[35] https://understandingwar.org/research/russia-ukraine/russias-quiet-conquest-belarus/
[36] [1] https://bird dot bg/meta-telus-censorship-pro-russian-propaganda/?fbclid=IwAR1_XRgy9y3cw4baiGvJAosjQElz2UT0UMW_vHh6YzVErKxdmKwJxmVDFmI ; https://www dot wired.com/story/in-bulgaria-russian-trolls-are-winning-the-information-war/ ; https://www dot intellinews.com/employees-claim-bulgarian-facebook-moderators-controlled-by-russia-267690/
[37] https://understandingwar.org/research/russia-ukraine/the-kremlins-expanding-media/
[38] https://www.reuters.com/article/ukraine-crisis-bulgaria-media-idINL1N2V41KW/ ; https://www.rferl.org/a/russia-rt-sputnik-eu-access-bans-propaganda-ukraine-war/32803929.html ; https://www.dw dot com/en/russias-rt-channel-blocked-by-german-regulators/a-60635397 ; https://www.rferl.org/a/russia-rt-germany-ban/31683693.html; https://www.cnbc.com/2022/03/03/russia-backed-cable-news-station-rt-america-shuts-down-amid-ukraine-invasion.html ; https://www.pbs.org/newshour/world/russian-state-media-outlets-banned-from-metas-apps-over-foreign-interference-activity
[39] https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2022/03/02/eu-imposes-sanctions-on-state-owned-outlets-rtrussia-today-and-sputnik-s-broadcasting-in-the-eu/
[40]
https://newsukraine.rbc dot ua/news/azerbaijani-police-raid-sputnik-office-in-17512; https://understandingwar.org/research/adversary-entente/adversary-entente-task-force-update-july-23-2025/;
[41] https://www.azatutyun dot am/a/33676990.html ; https://arka dot am/en/news/politics/armenia-to-impose-sanctions-against-foreign-broadcasters-for-interference-in-domestic-politics/
[42] https://www.dw dot com/en/russias-disinformation-campaign-in-armenia-gains-momentum/a-74868051
[43] https://tass dot ru/politika/26718453; https://x.com/tvrain/status/2031667688947236940
[44] https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP87T00787R000200170003-4.pdf ; https://www.kommersant dot ru/doc/2892 ; https://www.nytimes.com/1993/01/26/world/in-new-climate-of-freedom-few-russian-newspapers-thrive.html
[45] https://understandingwar.org/research/cognitive-warfare/a-primer-on-russian-cognitive-warfare/; https://understandingwar.org/research/russia-ukraine/denying-russias-only-strategy-for-success-2/
[46] https://understandingwar.org/research/cognitive-warfare/a-primer-on-russian-cognitive-warfare/
